fix module path

Signed-off-by: Jeff Carr <jcarr@wit.com>

.github/workflows/go.yml

@@ -15,17 +15,17 @@ jobs:
     strategy:
       fail-fast: false
       matrix:
-        go: ['1.13', '1.14', '1.15', '1.16']
+        go: ['1.17', '1.18', '1.19']
 
     steps:
     - id: go
       name: Set up Go
-      uses: actions/setup-go@v1
+      uses: actions/setup-go@v3
       with:
         go-version: ${{ matrix.go }}
 
     - name: Checkout
-      uses: actions/checkout@v2
+      uses: actions/checkout@v3
 
     - name: Build
       run: go build -v .

Makefile

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+# git remote add gitwit git@git.wit.org:wit/arg.git
+
+redomod:
+	rm -f go.*
+	GO111MODULE= go mod init
+	GO111MODULE= go mod tidy
+
+github:
+	git push origin register
+	git push origin devel
+	git push origin jcarr
+	git push origin --tags
+	# git push github register
+	# git push github devel
+	# git push github --tags
+	@echo
+	@echo check https://git.wit.org/wit/arg
+	@echo
+
+# init-github:
+# 	git push -u github master
+# 	git push -u github devel
+# 	git push github --tags

README.md

@@ -180,6 +180,24 @@ var args struct {
 arg.MustParse(&args)
 ```
 
+#### Ignoring environment variables and/or default values
+
+The values in an existing structure can be kept in-tact by ignoring environment
+variables and/or default values.
+
+```go
+var args struct {
+    Test  string `arg:"-t,env:TEST" default:"something"`
+}
+
+p, err := arg.NewParser(arg.Config{
+    IgnoreEnv: true,
+    IgnoreDefault: true,
+}, &args)
+
+err = p.Parse(os.Args)
+```
+
 ### Arguments with multiple values
 ```go
 var args struct {
@@ -444,6 +462,9 @@ Options:
 
 ### Description strings
 
+A descriptive message can be added at the top of the help text by implementing
+a `Description` function that returns a string.
+
 ```go
 type args struct {
 	Foo string
@@ -469,6 +490,35 @@ Options:
   --help, -h             display this help and exit
 ```
 
+Similarly an epilogue can be added at the end of the help text by implementing
+the `Epilogue` function.
+
+```go
+type args struct {
+	Foo string
+}
+
+func (args) Epilogue() string {
+	return "For more information visit github.com/alexflint/go-arg"
+}
+
+func main() {
+	var args args
+	arg.MustParse(&args)
+}
+```
+
+```shell
+$ ./example -h
+Usage: example [--foo FOO]
+
+Options:
+  --foo FOO
+  --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+For more information visit github.com/alexflint/go-arg
+```
+
 ### Subcommands
 
 *Introduced in version 1.1.0*

example_test.go

@@ -162,8 +162,7 @@ func Example_helpText() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -195,8 +194,7 @@ func Example_helpPlaceholder() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -236,8 +234,7 @@ func Example_helpTextWithSubcommand() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -274,8 +271,7 @@ func Example_helpTextWhenUsingSubcommand() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -311,10 +307,9 @@ func Example_writeHelpForSubcommand() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	exit := func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Exit: exit}, &args)
 	if err != nil {
 		fmt.Println(err)
 		os.Exit(1)
@@ -360,10 +355,9 @@ func Example_writeHelpForSubcommandNested() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	exit := func(int) {}
-	stdout = os.Stdout
 
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Exit: exit}, &args)
 	if err != nil {
 		fmt.Println(err)
 		os.Exit(1)
@@ -397,8 +391,7 @@ func Example_errorText() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stderr = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -421,8 +414,7 @@ func Example_errorTextForSubcommand() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stderr = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -457,8 +449,7 @@ func Example_subcommand() {
 	}
 
 	// This is only necessary when running inside golang's runnable example harness
-	osExit = func(int) {}
+	mustParseExit = func(int) {}
-	stderr = os.Stdout
 
 	MustParse(&args)
 
@@ -505,3 +496,45 @@ func Example_allSupportedTypes() {
 
 	// output:
 }
+
+func Example_envVarOnly() {
+	os.Args = split("./example")
+	_ = os.Setenv("AUTH_KEY", "my_key")
+
+	defer os.Unsetenv("AUTH_KEY")
+
+	var args struct {
+		AuthKey string `arg:"--,env:AUTH_KEY"`
+	}
+
+	MustParse(&args)
+
+	fmt.Println(args.AuthKey)
+	// output: my_key
+}
+
+func Example_envVarOnlyShouldIgnoreFlag() {
+	os.Args = split("./example --=my_key")
+
+	var args struct {
+		AuthKey string `arg:"--,env:AUTH_KEY"`
+	}
+
+	err := Parse(&args)
+
+	fmt.Println(err)
+	// output: unknown argument --=my_key
+}
+
+func Example_envVarOnlyShouldIgnoreShortFlag() {
+	os.Args = split("./example -=my_key")
+
+	var args struct {
+		AuthKey string `arg:"--,env:AUTH_KEY"`
+	}
+
+	err := Parse(&args)
+
+	fmt.Println(err)
+	// output: unknown argument -=my_key
+}

go.mod

@@ -1,8 +1,14 @@
-module github.com/alexflint/go-arg
+module go.wit.com/dev/alexflint/go-arg
+
+go 1.21.4
 
 require (
-	github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.1.0
+	github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.2.0
-	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.7.0
+	github.com/stretchr/testify v1.8.4
 )
 
-go 1.13
+require (
+	github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1 // indirect
+	github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0 // indirect
+	gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 // indirect
+)

go.sum

@@ -1,15 +1,13 @@
-github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.1.0 h1:aaAouLLzI9TChcPXotr6gUhq+Scr8rl0P9P4PnltbhM=
+github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.2.0 h1:WR7JPKkeNpnYIOfHRa7ivM21aWAdHD0gEWHCx+WQBRw=
-github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.1.0/go.mod h1:LoFvNMqS1CPrMVltza4LvnGKhaSpc3oyLEBUZVhhS2o=
+github.com/alexflint/go-scalar v1.2.0/go.mod h1:LoFvNMqS1CPrMVltza4LvnGKhaSpc3oyLEBUZVhhS2o=
-github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.0/go.mod h1:J7Y8YcW2NihsgmVo/mv3lAwl/skON4iLHjSsI+c5H38=
 github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1 h1:vj9j/u1bqnvCEfJOwUhtlOARqs3+rkHYY13jYWTU97c=
 github.com/davecgh/go-spew v1.1.1/go.mod h1:J7Y8YcW2NihsgmVo/mv3lAwl/skON4iLHjSsI+c5H38=
 github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0 h1:4DBwDE0NGyQoBHbLQYPwSUPoCMWR5BEzIk/f1lZbAQM=
 github.com/pmezard/go-difflib v1.0.0/go.mod h1:iKH77koFhYxTK1pcRnkKkqfTogsbg7gZNVY4sRDYZ/4=
-github.com/stretchr/objx v0.1.0/go.mod h1:HFkY916IF+rwdDfMAkV7OtwuqBVzrE8GR6GFx+wExME=
 github.com/stretchr/testify v1.2.2/go.mod h1:a8OnRcib4nhh0OaRAV+Yts87kKdq0PP7pXfy6kDkUVs=
-github.com/stretchr/testify v1.7.0 h1:nwc3DEeHmmLAfoZucVR881uASk0Mfjw8xYJ99tb5CcY=
+github.com/stretchr/testify v1.8.4 h1:CcVxjf3Q8PM0mHUKJCdn+eZZtm5yQwehR5yeSVQQcUk=
-github.com/stretchr/testify v1.7.0/go.mod h1:6Fq8oRcR53rry900zMqJjRRixrwX3KX962/h/Wwjteg=
+github.com/stretchr/testify v1.8.4/go.mod h1:sz/lmYIOXD/1dqDmKjjqLyZ2RngseejIcXlSw2iwfAo=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405 h1:yhCVgyC4o1eVCa2tZl7eS0r+SDo693bJlVdllGtEeKM=
 gopkg.in/check.v1 v0.0.0-20161208181325-20d25e280405/go.mod h1:Co6ibVJAznAaIkqp8huTwlJQCZ016jof/cbN4VW5Yz0=
-gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.0-20200313102051-9f266ea9e77c h1:dUUwHk2QECo/6vqA44rthZ8ie2QXMNeKRTHCNY2nXvo=
+gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1 h1:fxVm/GzAzEWqLHuvctI91KS9hhNmmWOoWu0XTYJS7CA=
-gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.0-20200313102051-9f266ea9e77c/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=
+gopkg.in/yaml.v3 v3.0.1/go.mod h1:K4uyk7z7BCEPqu6E+C64Yfv1cQ7kz7rIZviUmN+EgEM=

parse.go

@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 	"encoding/csv"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
+	"io"
 	"os"
 	"path/filepath"
 	"reflect"
@@ -53,13 +54,15 @@ type spec struct {
 	separate      bool                // if true, each slice and map entry will have its own --flag
 	help          string              // the help text for this option
 	env           string              // the name of the environment variable for this option, or empty for none
-	defaultVal  string              // default value for this option
+	defaultValue  reflect.Value       // default value for this option
+	defaultString string              // default value for this option, in string form to be displayed in help text
 	placeholder   string              // name of the data in help
 }
 
 // command represents a named subcommand, or the top-level command
 type command struct {
 	name        string
+	aliases     []string
 	help        string
 	dest        path
 	specs       []*spec
@@ -67,33 +70,55 @@ type command struct {
 	parent      *command
 }
 
-// ErrHelp indicates that -h or --help were provided
+// ErrHelp indicates that the builtin -h or --help were provided
 var ErrHelp = errors.New("help requested by user")
 
-// ErrVersion indicates that --version was provided
+// ErrVersion indicates that the builtin --version was provided
 var ErrVersion = errors.New("version requested by user")
 
+// for monkey patching in example code
+var mustParseExit = os.Exit
+
+// This stores the args sent from modules
+var register []interface{}
+
+/*
+	Use this in your packages to register
+	variables with go-arg. Then add this to your init()
+
+	package 'foo'
+	function init() {
+		args.Register(&argsFoo)
+	}
+*/
+func Register(dest ...interface{}) {
+	register = append(register, dest...)
+}
+
 // MustParse processes command line arguments and exits upon failure
 func MustParse(dest ...interface{}) *Parser {
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, dest...)
+	register = append(register, dest...)
+	return mustParse(Config{Exit: mustParseExit}, register...)
+}
+
+
+// mustParse is a helper that facilitates testing
+func mustParse(config Config, dest ...interface{}) *Parser {
+	if config.Exit == nil {
+		config.Exit = os.Exit
+	}
+	if config.Out == nil {
+		config.Out = os.Stdout
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(config, dest...)
 	if err != nil {
-		fmt.Fprintln(stdout, err)
+		fmt.Fprintln(config.Out, err)
-		osExit(-1)
+		config.Exit(-1)
-		return nil // just in case osExit was monkey-patched
+		return nil
-	}
-
-	err = p.Parse(flags())
-	switch {
-	case err == ErrHelp:
-		p.writeHelpForSubcommand(stdout, p.lastCmd)
-		osExit(0)
-	case err == ErrVersion:
-		fmt.Fprintln(stdout, p.version)
-		osExit(0)
-	case err != nil:
-		p.failWithSubcommand(err.Error(), p.lastCmd)
 	}
 
+	p.MustParse(flags())
 	return p
 }
 
@@ -121,6 +146,20 @@ type Config struct {
 
 	// IgnoreEnv instructs the library not to read environment variables
 	IgnoreEnv bool
+
+	// IgnoreDefault instructs the library not to reset the variables to the
+	// default values, including pointers to sub commands
+	IgnoreDefault bool
+
+	// StrictSubcommands intructs the library not to allow global commands after
+	// subcommand
+	StrictSubcommands bool
+
+	// Exit is called to terminate the process with an error code (defaults to os.Exit)
+	Exit func(int)
+
+	// Out is where help text, usage text, and failure messages are printed (defaults to os.Stdout)
+	Out io.Writer
 }
 
 // Parser represents a set of command line options with destination values
@@ -130,9 +169,10 @@ type Parser struct {
 	config      Config
 	version     string
 	description string
+	epilogue    string
 
 	// the following field changes during processing of command line arguments
-	lastCmd *command
+	subcommand []string
 }
 
 // Versioned is the interface that the destination struct should implement to
@@ -151,6 +191,14 @@ type Described interface {
 	Description() string
 }
 
+// Epilogued is the interface that the destination struct should implement to
+// add an epilogue string at the bottom of the help message.
+type Epilogued interface {
+	// Epilogue returns the string that will be printed on a line by itself
+	// at the end of the help message.
+	Epilogue() string
+}
+
 // walkFields calls a function for each field of a struct, recursively expanding struct fields.
 func walkFields(t reflect.Type, visit func(field reflect.StructField, owner reflect.Type) bool) {
 	walkFieldsImpl(t, visit, nil)
@@ -174,6 +222,14 @@ func walkFieldsImpl(t reflect.Type, visit func(field reflect.StructField, owner
 
 // NewParser constructs a parser from a list of destination structs
 func NewParser(config Config, dests ...interface{}) (*Parser, error) {
+	// fill in defaults
+	if config.Exit == nil {
+		config.Exit = os.Exit
+	}
+	if config.Out == nil {
+		config.Out = os.Stdout
+	}
+
 	// first pick a name for the command for use in the usage text
 	var name string
 	switch {
@@ -208,18 +264,31 @@ func NewParser(config Config, dests ...interface{}) (*Parser, error) {
 			return nil, err
 		}
 
-		// add nonzero field values as defaults
+		// for backwards compatibility, add nonzero field values as defaults
+		// this applies only to the top-level command, not to subcommands (this inconsistency
+		// is the reason that this method for setting default values was deprecated)
 		for _, spec := range cmd.specs {
-			if v := p.val(spec.dest); v.IsValid() && !isZero(v) {
+			// get the value
-				if defaultVal, ok := v.Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler); ok {
+			v := p.val(spec.dest)
-					str, err := defaultVal.MarshalText()
+
+			// if the value is the "zero value" (e.g. nil pointer, empty struct) then ignore
+			if isZero(v) {
+				continue
+			}
+
+			// store as a default
+			spec.defaultValue = v
+
+			// we need a string to display in help text
+			// if MarshalText is implemented then use that
+			if m, ok := v.Interface().(encoding.TextMarshaler); ok {
+				s, err := m.MarshalText()
 				if err != nil {
 					return nil, fmt.Errorf("%v: error marshaling default value to string: %v", spec.dest, err)
 				}
-					spec.defaultVal = string(str)
+				spec.defaultString = string(s)
 			} else {
-					spec.defaultVal = fmt.Sprintf("%v", v)
+				spec.defaultString = fmt.Sprintf("%v", v)
-				}
 			}
 		}
 
@@ -232,6 +301,9 @@ func NewParser(config Config, dests ...interface{}) (*Parser, error) {
 		if dest, ok := dest.(Described); ok {
 			p.description = dest.Description()
 		}
+		if dest, ok := dest.(Epilogued); ok {
+			p.epilogue = dest.Epilogue()
+		}
 	}
 
 	return &p, nil
@@ -288,13 +360,9 @@ func cmdFromStruct(name string, dest path, t reflect.Type) (*command, error) {
 			spec.help = help
 		}
 
-		defaultVal, hasDefault := field.Tag.Lookup("default")
-		if hasDefault {
-			spec.defaultVal = defaultVal
-		}
-
 		// Look at the tag
 		var isSubcommand bool // tracks whether this field is a subcommand
+
 		for _, key := range strings.Split(tag, ",") {
 			if key == "" {
 				continue
@@ -312,18 +380,13 @@ func cmdFromStruct(name string, dest path, t reflect.Type) (*command, error) {
 			case strings.HasPrefix(key, "--"):
 				spec.long = key[2:]
 			case strings.HasPrefix(key, "-"):
-				if len(key) != 2 {
+				if len(key) > 2 {
 					errs = append(errs, fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s: short arguments must be one character only",
 						t.Name(), field.Name))
 					return false
 				}
 				spec.short = key[1:]
 			case key == "required":
-				if hasDefault {
-					errs = append(errs, fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s: 'required' cannot be used when a default value is specified",
-						t.Name(), field.Name))
-					return false
-				}
 				spec.required = true
 			case key == "positional":
 				spec.positional = true
@@ -340,18 +403,24 @@ func cmdFromStruct(name string, dest path, t reflect.Type) (*command, error) {
 				}
 			case key == "subcommand":
 				// decide on a name for the subcommand
-				cmdname := value
+				var cmdnames []string
-				if cmdname == "" {
+				if value == "" {
-					cmdname = strings.ToLower(field.Name)
+					cmdnames = []string{strings.ToLower(field.Name)}
+				} else {
+					cmdnames = strings.Split(value, "|")
+				}
+				for i := range cmdnames {
+					cmdnames[i] = strings.TrimSpace(cmdnames[i])
 				}
 
 				// parse the subcommand recursively
-				subcmd, err := cmdFromStruct(cmdname, subdest, field.Type)
+				subcmd, err := cmdFromStruct(cmdnames[0], subdest, field.Type)
 				if err != nil {
 					errs = append(errs, err.Error())
 					return false
 				}
 
+				subcmd.aliases = cmdnames[1:]
 				subcmd.parent = &cmd
 				subcmd.help = field.Tag.Get("help")
 
@@ -372,13 +441,15 @@ func cmdFromStruct(name string, dest path, t reflect.Type) (*command, error) {
 			spec.placeholder = strings.ToUpper(spec.field.Name)
 		}
 
-		// Check whether this field is supported. It's good to do this here rather than
+		// if this is a subcommand then we've done everything we need to do
+		if isSubcommand {
+			return false
+		}
+
+		// check whether this field is supported. It's good to do this here rather than
 		// wait until ParseValue because it means that a program with invalid argument
 		// fields will always fail regardless of whether the arguments it received
 		// exercised those fields.
-		if !isSubcommand {
-			cmd.specs = append(cmd.specs, &spec)
-
 		var err error
 		spec.cardinality, err = cardinalityOf(field.Type)
 		if err != nil {
@@ -386,13 +457,44 @@ func cmdFromStruct(name string, dest path, t reflect.Type) (*command, error) {
 				t.Name(), field.Name, field.Type.String()))
 			return false
 		}
-			if spec.cardinality == multiple && hasDefault {
+
+		defaultString, hasDefault := field.Tag.Lookup("default")
+		if hasDefault {
+			// we do not support default values for maps and slices
+			if spec.cardinality == multiple {
 				errs = append(errs, fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s: default values are not supported for slice or map fields",
 					t.Name(), field.Name))
 				return false
 			}
+
+			// a required field cannot also have a default value
+			if spec.required {
+				errs = append(errs, fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s: 'required' cannot be used when a default value is specified",
+					t.Name(), field.Name))
+				return false
 			}
 
+			// parse the default value
+			spec.defaultString = defaultString
+			if field.Type.Kind() == reflect.Ptr {
+				// here we have a field of type *T and we create a new T, no need to dereference
+				// in order for the value to be settable
+				spec.defaultValue = reflect.New(field.Type.Elem())
+			} else {
+				// here we have a field of type T and we create a new T and then dereference it
+				// so that the resulting value is settable
+				spec.defaultValue = reflect.New(field.Type).Elem()
+			}
+			err := scalar.ParseValue(spec.defaultValue, defaultString)
+			if err != nil {
+				errs = append(errs, fmt.Sprintf("%s.%s: error processing default value: %v", t.Name(), field.Name, err))
+				return false
+			}
+		}
+
+		// add the spec to the list of specs
+		cmd.specs = append(cmd.specs, &spec)
+
 		// if this was an embedded field then we already returned true up above
 		return false
 	})
@@ -433,6 +535,20 @@ func (p *Parser) Parse(args []string) error {
 	return err
 }
 
+func (p *Parser) MustParse(args []string) {
+	err := p.Parse(args)
+	switch {
+	case err == ErrHelp:
+		p.WriteHelpForSubcommand(p.config.Out, p.subcommand...)
+		p.config.Exit(0)
+	case err == ErrVersion:
+		fmt.Fprintln(p.config.Out, p.version)
+		p.config.Exit(0)
+	case err != nil:
+		p.FailSubcommand(err.Error(), p.subcommand...)
+	}
+}
+
 // process environment vars for the given arguments
 func (p *Parser) captureEnvVars(specs []*spec, wasPresent map[*spec]bool) error {
 	for _, spec := range specs {
@@ -486,7 +602,7 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 
 	// union of specs for the chain of subcommands encountered so far
 	curCmd := p.cmd
-	p.lastCmd = curCmd
+	p.subcommand = nil
 
 	// make a copy of the specs because we will add to this list each time we expand a subcommand
 	specs := make([]*spec, len(curCmd.specs))
@@ -500,6 +616,15 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 		}
 	}
 
+	// determine if the current command has a version option spec
+	var hasVersionOption bool
+	for _, spec := range curCmd.specs {
+		if spec.long == "version" {
+			hasVersionOption = true
+			break
+		}
+	}
+
 	// process each string from the command line
 	var allpositional bool
 	var positionals []string
@@ -527,10 +652,17 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 
 			// instantiate the field to point to a new struct
 			v := p.val(subcmd.dest)
+			if v.IsNil() {
 				v.Set(reflect.New(v.Type().Elem())) // we already checked that all subcommands are struct pointers
+			}
 
 			// add the new options to the set of allowed options
+			if p.config.StrictSubcommands {
+				specs = make([]*spec, len(subcmd.specs))
+				copy(specs, subcmd.specs)
+			} else {
 				specs = append(specs, subcmd.specs...)
+			}
 
 			// capture environment vars for these new options
 			if !p.config.IgnoreEnv {
@@ -541,7 +673,7 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 			}
 
 			curCmd = subcmd
-			p.lastCmd = curCmd
+			p.subcommand = append(p.subcommand, arg)
 			continue
 		}
 
@@ -550,8 +682,10 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 		case "-h", "--help":
 			return ErrHelp
 		case "--version":
+			if !hasVersionOption && p.version != "" {
 				return ErrVersion
 			}
+		}
 
 		// check for an equals sign, as in "--foo=bar"
 		var value string
@@ -564,7 +698,7 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 		// lookup the spec for this option (note that the "specs" slice changes as
 		// we expand subcommands so it is better not to use a map)
 		spec := findOption(specs, opt)
-		if spec == nil {
+		if spec == nil || opt == "" {
 			return fmt.Errorf("unknown argument %s", arg)
 		}
 		wasPresent[spec] = true
@@ -653,17 +787,26 @@ func (p *Parser) process(args []string) error {
 		}
 
 		if spec.required {
+			if spec.short == "" && spec.long == "" {
+				msg := fmt.Sprintf("environment variable %s is required", spec.env)
+				return errors.New(msg)
+			}
+
 			msg := fmt.Sprintf("%s is required", name)
 			if spec.env != "" {
 				msg += " (or environment variable " + spec.env + ")"
 			}
+
 			return errors.New(msg)
 		}
-		if spec.defaultVal != "" {
+
-			err := scalar.ParseValue(p.val(spec.dest), spec.defaultVal)
+		if spec.defaultValue.IsValid() && !p.config.IgnoreDefault {
-			if err != nil {
+			// One issue here is that if the user now modifies the value then
-				return fmt.Errorf("error processing default value for %s: %v", name, err)
+			// the default value stored in the spec will be corrupted. There
-			}
+			// is no general way to "deep-copy" values in Go, and we still
+			// support the old-style method for specifying defaults as
+			// Go values assigned directly to the struct field, so we are stuck.
+			p.val(spec.dest).Set(spec.defaultValue)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -724,6 +867,11 @@ func findSubcommand(cmds []*command, name string) *command {
 		if cmd.name == name {
 			return cmd
 		}
+		for _, alias := range cmd.aliases {
+			if alias == name {
+				return cmd
+			}
+		}
 	}
 	return nil
 }

parse_test.go

@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ package arg
 
 import (
 	"bytes"
+	"encoding/json"
 	"fmt"
 	"net"
 	"net/mail"
@@ -95,6 +96,21 @@ func TestInt(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.EqualValues(t, 8, *args.Ptr)
 }
 
+func TestHexOctBin(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Hex         int
+		Oct         int
+		Bin         int
+		Underscored int
+	}
+	err := parse("--hex 0xA --oct 0o10 --bin 0b101 --underscored 123_456", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.EqualValues(t, 10, args.Hex)
+	assert.EqualValues(t, 8, args.Oct)
+	assert.EqualValues(t, 5, args.Bin)
+	assert.EqualValues(t, 123456, args.Underscored)
+}
+
 func TestNegativeInt(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct {
 		Foo int
@@ -211,6 +227,14 @@ func TestRequiredWithEnv(t *testing.T) {
 	require.Error(t, err, "--foo is required (or environment variable FOO)")
 }
 
+func TestRequiredWithEnvOnly(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Foo string `arg:"required,--,-,env:FOO"`
+	}
+	_, err := parseWithEnv("", []string{}, &args)
+	require.Error(t, err, "environment variable FOO is required")
+}
+
 func TestShortFlag(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct {
 		Foo string `arg:"-f"`
@@ -816,6 +840,37 @@ func TestEnvironmentVariableIgnored(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, "", args.Foo)
 }
 
+func TestDefaultValuesIgnored(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Foo string `default:"bad"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{IgnoreDefault: true}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse(nil)
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Equal(t, "", args.Foo)
+}
+
+func TestRequiredEnvironmentOnlyVariableIsMissing(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Foo string `arg:"required,--,env:FOO"`
+	}
+
+	_, err := parseWithEnv("", []string{""}, &args)
+	assert.Error(t, err)
+}
+
+func TestOptionalEnvironmentOnlyVariable(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Foo string `arg:"env:FOO"`
+	}
+
+	_, err := parseWithEnv("", []string{}, &args)
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+}
+
 func TestEnvironmentVariableInSubcommandIgnored(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct {
 		Sub *struct {
@@ -828,10 +883,51 @@ func TestEnvironmentVariableInSubcommandIgnored(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	err = p.Parse([]string{"sub"})
-	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NotNil(t, args.Sub)
 	assert.Equal(t, "", args.Sub.Foo)
 }
 
+func TestParserMustParseEmptyArgs(t *testing.T) {
+	// this mirrors TestEmptyArgs
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &struct{}{})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.NotNil(t, p)
+	p.MustParse(nil)
+}
+
+func TestParserMustParse(t *testing.T) {
+	tests := []struct {
+		name    string
+		args    versioned
+		cmdLine []string
+		code    int
+		output  string
+	}{
+		{name: "help", args: struct{}{}, cmdLine: []string{"--help"}, code: 0, output: "display this help and exit"},
+		{name: "version", args: versioned{}, cmdLine: []string{"--version"}, code: 0, output: "example 3.2.1"},
+		{name: "invalid", args: struct{}{}, cmdLine: []string{"invalid"}, code: -1, output: ""},
+	}
+
+	for _, tt := range tests {
+		tt := tt
+		t.Run(tt.name, func(t *testing.T) {
+			var exitCode int
+			var stdout bytes.Buffer
+			exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
+
+			p, err := NewParser(Config{Exit: exit, Out: &stdout}, &tt.args)
+			require.NoError(t, err)
+			assert.NotNil(t, p)
+
+			p.MustParse(tt.cmdLine)
+			assert.NotNil(t, exitCode)
+			assert.Equal(t, tt.code, exitCode)
+			assert.Contains(t, stdout.String(), tt.output)
+		})
+	}
+}
+
 type textUnmarshaler struct {
 	val int
 }
@@ -1285,11 +1381,55 @@ func TestReuseParser(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Error(t, err)
 }
 
-func TestVersion(t *testing.T) {
+func TestNoVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct{}
-	err := parse("--version", &args)
-	assert.Equal(t, ErrVersion, err)
 
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"--version"})
+	assert.Error(t, err)
+	assert.NotEqual(t, ErrVersion, err)
+}
+
+func TestBuiltinVersion(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct{}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	p.version = "example 3.2.1"
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"--version"})
+	assert.Equal(t, ErrVersion, err)
+}
+
+func TestArgsVersion(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Version bool `arg:"--version"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"--version"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, args.Version, true)
+}
+
+func TestArgsAndBuiltinVersion(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Version bool `arg:"--version"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	p.version = "example 3.2.1"
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"--version"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	require.Equal(t, args.Version, true)
 }
 
 func TestMultipleTerminates(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1320,13 +1460,21 @@ func TestDefaultOptionValues(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	assert.Equal(t, 123, args.A)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.B) {
 		assert.Equal(t, 123, *args.B)
+	}
 	assert.Equal(t, "xyz", args.C)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.D) {
 		assert.Equal(t, "abc", *args.D)
+	}
 	assert.Equal(t, 4.56, args.E)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.F) {
 		assert.Equal(t, 1.23, *args.F)
+	}
 	assert.True(t, args.G)
-	assert.True(t, args.G)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.H) {
+		assert.True(t, *args.H)
+	}
 }
 
 func TestDefaultUnparseable(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1335,7 +1483,7 @@ func TestDefaultUnparseable(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	err := parse("", &args)
-	assert.EqualError(t, err, `error processing default value for --a: strconv.ParseInt: parsing "x": invalid syntax`)
+	assert.EqualError(t, err, `.A: error processing default value: strconv.ParseInt: parsing "x": invalid syntax`)
 }
 
 func TestDefaultPositionalValues(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1354,13 +1502,21 @@ func TestDefaultPositionalValues(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	assert.Equal(t, 456, args.A)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.B) {
 		assert.Equal(t, 789, *args.B)
+	}
 	assert.Equal(t, "abc", args.C)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.D) {
 		assert.Equal(t, "abc", *args.D)
+	}
 	assert.Equal(t, 1.23, args.E)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.F) {
 		assert.Equal(t, 1.23, *args.F)
+	}
 	assert.True(t, args.G)
-	assert.True(t, args.G)
+	if assert.NotNil(t, args.H) {
+		assert.True(t, *args.H)
+	}
 }
 
 func TestDefaultValuesNotAllowedWithRequired(t *testing.T) {
@@ -1374,7 +1530,7 @@ func TestDefaultValuesNotAllowedWithRequired(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestDefaultValuesNotAllowedWithSlice(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct {
-		A []int `default:"123"` // required not allowed with default!
+		A []int `default:"invalid"` // default values not allowed with slices
 	}
 
 	err := parse("", &args)
@@ -1391,68 +1547,193 @@ func TestUnexportedFieldsSkipped(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 func TestMustParseInvalidParser(t *testing.T) {
-	originalExit := osExit
-	originalStdout := stdout
-	defer func() {
-		osExit = originalExit
-		stdout = originalStdout
-	}()
-
 	var exitCode int
-	osExit = func(code int) { exitCode = code }
+	var stdout bytes.Buffer
-	stdout = &bytes.Buffer{}
+	exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
 
 	var args struct {
 		CannotParse struct{}
 	}
-	parser := MustParse(&args)
+	parser := mustParse(Config{Out: &stdout, Exit: exit}, &args)
 	assert.Nil(t, parser)
 	assert.Equal(t, -1, exitCode)
 }
 
 func TestMustParsePrintsHelp(t *testing.T) {
-	originalExit := osExit
-	originalStdout := stdout
 	originalArgs := os.Args
 	defer func() {
-		osExit = originalExit
-		stdout = originalStdout
 		os.Args = originalArgs
 	}()
 
-	var exitCode *int
-	osExit = func(code int) { exitCode = &code }
 	os.Args = []string{"someprogram", "--help"}
-	stdout = &bytes.Buffer{}
+
+	var exitCode int
+	var stdout bytes.Buffer
+	exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
 
 	var args struct{}
-	parser := MustParse(&args)
+	parser := mustParse(Config{Out: &stdout, Exit: exit}, &args)
 	assert.NotNil(t, parser)
-	require.NotNil(t, exitCode)
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, exitCode)
-	assert.Equal(t, 0, *exitCode)
 }
 
 func TestMustParsePrintsVersion(t *testing.T) {
-	originalExit := osExit
-	originalStdout := stdout
 	originalArgs := os.Args
 	defer func() {
-		osExit = originalExit
-		stdout = originalStdout
 		os.Args = originalArgs
 	}()
 
-	var exitCode *int
+	var exitCode int
-	osExit = func(code int) { exitCode = &code }
+	var stdout bytes.Buffer
+	exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
+
 	os.Args = []string{"someprogram", "--version"}
 
-	var b bytes.Buffer
-	stdout = &b
-
 	var args versioned
-	parser := MustParse(&args)
+	parser := mustParse(Config{Out: &stdout, Exit: exit}, &args)
 	require.NotNil(t, parser)
-	require.NotNil(t, exitCode)
+	assert.Equal(t, 0, exitCode)
-	assert.Equal(t, 0, *exitCode)
+	assert.Equal(t, "example 3.2.1\n", stdout.String())
-	assert.Equal(t, "example 3.2.1\n", b.String())
+}
+
+type mapWithUnmarshalText struct {
+	val map[string]string
+}
+
+func (v *mapWithUnmarshalText) UnmarshalText(data []byte) error {
+	return json.Unmarshal(data, &v.val)
+}
+
+func TestTextUnmarshalerEmpty(t *testing.T) {
+	// based on https://github.com/alexflint/go-arg/issues/184
+	var args struct {
+		Config mapWithUnmarshalText `arg:"--config"`
+	}
+
+	err := parse("", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Empty(t, args.Config)
+}
+
+func TestTextUnmarshalerEmptyPointer(t *testing.T) {
+	// a slight variant on https://github.com/alexflint/go-arg/issues/184
+	var args struct {
+		Config *mapWithUnmarshalText `arg:"--config"`
+	}
+
+	err := parse("", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Nil(t, args.Config)
+}
+
+// similar to the above but also implements MarshalText
+type mapWithMarshalText struct {
+	val map[string]string
+}
+
+func (v *mapWithMarshalText) MarshalText(data []byte) error {
+	return json.Unmarshal(data, &v.val)
+}
+
+func (v *mapWithMarshalText) UnmarshalText(data []byte) error {
+	return json.Unmarshal(data, &v.val)
+}
+
+func TestTextMarshalerUnmarshalerEmpty(t *testing.T) {
+	// based on https://github.com/alexflint/go-arg/issues/184
+	var args struct {
+		Config mapWithMarshalText `arg:"--config"`
+	}
+
+	err := parse("", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Empty(t, args.Config)
+}
+
+func TestTextMarshalerUnmarshalerEmptyPointer(t *testing.T) {
+	// a slight variant on https://github.com/alexflint/go-arg/issues/184
+	var args struct {
+		Config *mapWithMarshalText `arg:"--config"`
+	}
+
+	err := parse("", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Nil(t, args.Config)
+}
+
+func TestSubcommandGlobalFlag_Before(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Global bool `arg:"-g"`
+		Sub    *struct {
+		} `arg:"subcommand"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{StrictSubcommands: false}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"-g", "sub"})
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.True(t, args.Global)
+}
+
+func TestSubcommandGlobalFlag_InCommand(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Global bool `arg:"-g"`
+		Sub    *struct {
+		} `arg:"subcommand"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{StrictSubcommands: false}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"sub", "-g"})
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.True(t, args.Global)
+}
+
+func TestSubcommandGlobalFlag_Before_Strict(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Global bool `arg:"-g"`
+		Sub    *struct {
+		} `arg:"subcommand"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{StrictSubcommands: true}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"-g", "sub"})
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.True(t, args.Global)
+}
+
+func TestSubcommandGlobalFlag_InCommand_Strict(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Global bool `arg:"-g"`
+		Sub    *struct {
+		} `arg:"subcommand"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{StrictSubcommands: true}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"sub", "-g"})
+	assert.Error(t, err)
+}
+
+func TestSubcommandGlobalFlag_InCommand_Strict_Inner(t *testing.T) {
+	var args struct {
+		Global bool `arg:"-g"`
+		Sub    *struct {
+			Guard bool `arg:"-g"`
+		} `arg:"subcommand"`
+	}
+
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{StrictSubcommands: true}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	err = p.Parse([]string{"sub", "-g"})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.False(t, args.Global)
+	require.NotNil(t, args.Sub)
+	assert.True(t, args.Sub.Guard)
 }

reflect.go

@@ -74,10 +74,10 @@ func cardinalityOf(t reflect.Type) (cardinality, error) {
 	}
 }
 
-// isBoolean returns true if the type can be parsed from a single string
+// isBoolean returns true if the type is a boolean or a pointer to a boolean
 func isBoolean(t reflect.Type) bool {
 	switch {
-	case t.Implements(textUnmarshalerType):
+	case isTextUnmarshaler(t):
 		return false
 	case t.Kind() == reflect.Bool:
 		return true
@@ -88,6 +88,11 @@ func isBoolean(t reflect.Type) bool {
 	}
 }
 
+// isTextUnmarshaler returns true if the type or its pointer implements encoding.TextUnmarshaler
+func isTextUnmarshaler(t reflect.Type) bool {
+	return t.Implements(textUnmarshalerType) || reflect.PtrTo(t).Implements(textUnmarshalerType)
+}
+
 // isExported returns true if the struct field name is exported
 func isExported(field string) bool {
 	r, _ := utf8.DecodeRuneInString(field) // returns RuneError for empty string or invalid UTF8
@@ -97,7 +102,7 @@ func isExported(field string) bool {
 // isZero returns true if v contains the zero value for its type
 func isZero(v reflect.Value) bool {
 	t := v.Type()
-	if t.Kind() == reflect.Slice || t.Kind() == reflect.Map {
+	if t.Kind() == reflect.Ptr || t.Kind() == reflect.Slice || t.Kind() == reflect.Map || t.Kind() == reflect.Chan || t.Kind() == reflect.Interface {
 		return v.IsNil()
 	}
 	if !t.Comparable() {

subcommand.go

@@ -1,5 +1,7 @@
 package arg
 
+import "fmt"
+
 // Subcommand returns the user struct for the subcommand selected by
 // the command line arguments most recently processed by the parser.
 // The return value is always a pointer to a struct. If no subcommand
@@ -7,31 +9,35 @@ package arg
 // no command line arguments have been processed by this parser then it
 // returns nil.
 func (p *Parser) Subcommand() interface{} {
-	if p.lastCmd == nil || p.lastCmd.parent == nil {
+	if len(p.subcommand) == 0 {
 		return nil
 	}
-	return p.val(p.lastCmd.dest).Interface()
+	cmd, err := p.lookupCommand(p.subcommand...)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil
+	}
+	return p.val(cmd.dest).Interface()
 }
 
 // SubcommandNames returns the sequence of subcommands specified by the
 // user. If no subcommands were given then it returns an empty slice.
 func (p *Parser) SubcommandNames() []string {
-	if p.lastCmd == nil {
+	return p.subcommand
-		return nil
+}
-	}
+
-
+// lookupCommand finds a subcommand based on a sequence of subcommand names. The
-	// make a list of ancestor commands
+// first string should be a top-level subcommand, the next should be a child
-	var ancestors []string
+// subcommand of that subcommand, and so on. If no strings are given then the
-	cur := p.lastCmd
+// root command is returned. If no such subcommand exists then an error is
-	for cur.parent != nil { // we want to exclude the root
+// returned.
-		ancestors = append(ancestors, cur.name)
+func (p *Parser) lookupCommand(path ...string) (*command, error) {
-		cur = cur.parent
+	cmd := p.cmd
-	}
+	for _, name := range path {
-
+		found := findSubcommand(cmd.subcommands, name)
-	// reverse the list
+		if found == nil {
-	out := make([]string, len(ancestors))
+			return nil, fmt.Errorf("%q is not a subcommand of %s", name, cmd.name)
-	for i := 0; i < len(ancestors); i++ {
+		}
-		out[i] = ancestors[len(ancestors)-i-1]
+		cmd = found
-	}
+	}
-	return out
+	return cmd, nil
 }

subcommand_test.go

@@ -83,6 +83,19 @@ func TestNamedSubcommand(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"ls"}, p.SubcommandNames())
 }
 
+func TestSubcommandAliases(t *testing.T) {
+	type listCmd struct {
+	}
+	var args struct {
+		List *listCmd `arg:"subcommand:list|ls"`
+	}
+	p, err := pparse("ls", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.NotNil(t, args.List)
+	assert.Equal(t, args.List, p.Subcommand())
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"ls"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+}
+
 func TestEmptySubcommand(t *testing.T) {
 	type listCmd struct {
 	}
@@ -113,6 +126,23 @@ func TestTwoSubcommands(t *testing.T) {
 	assert.Equal(t, []string{"list"}, p.SubcommandNames())
 }
 
+func TestTwoSubcommandsWithAliases(t *testing.T) {
+	type getCmd struct {
+	}
+	type listCmd struct {
+	}
+	var args struct {
+		Get  *getCmd  `arg:"subcommand:get|g"`
+		List *listCmd `arg:"subcommand:list|ls"`
+	}
+	p, err := pparse("ls", &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+	assert.Nil(t, args.Get)
+	assert.NotNil(t, args.List)
+	assert.Equal(t, args.List, p.Subcommand())
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"ls"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+}
+
 func TestSubcommandsWithOptions(t *testing.T) {
 	type getCmd struct {
 		Name string
@@ -275,6 +305,60 @@ func TestNestedSubcommands(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 }
 
+func TestNestedSubcommandsWithAliases(t *testing.T) {
+	type child struct{}
+	type parent struct {
+		Child *child `arg:"subcommand:child|ch"`
+	}
+	type grandparent struct {
+		Parent *parent `arg:"subcommand:parent|pa"`
+	}
+	type root struct {
+		Grandparent *grandparent `arg:"subcommand:grandparent|gp"`
+	}
+
+	{
+		var args root
+		p, err := pparse("gp parent child", &args)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent.Parent)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent.Parent.Child)
+		assert.Equal(t, args.Grandparent.Parent.Child, p.Subcommand())
+		assert.Equal(t, []string{"gp", "parent", "child"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+	}
+
+	{
+		var args root
+		p, err := pparse("grandparent pa", &args)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent.Parent)
+		require.Nil(t, args.Grandparent.Parent.Child)
+		assert.Equal(t, args.Grandparent.Parent, p.Subcommand())
+		assert.Equal(t, []string{"grandparent", "pa"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+	}
+
+	{
+		var args root
+		p, err := pparse("grandparent", &args)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.NotNil(t, args.Grandparent)
+		require.Nil(t, args.Grandparent.Parent)
+		assert.Equal(t, args.Grandparent, p.Subcommand())
+		assert.Equal(t, []string{"grandparent"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+	}
+
+	{
+		var args root
+		p, err := pparse("", &args)
+		require.NoError(t, err)
+		require.Nil(t, args.Grandparent)
+		assert.Nil(t, p.Subcommand())
+		assert.Empty(t, p.SubcommandNames())
+	}
+}
+
 func TestSubcommandsWithPositionals(t *testing.T) {
 	type listCmd struct {
 		Pattern string `arg:"positional"`
@@ -411,3 +495,14 @@ func TestValForNilStruct(t *testing.T) {
 	v := p.val(path{fields: []reflect.StructField{subField, subField}})
 	assert.False(t, v.IsValid())
 }
+
+func TestSubcommandInvalidInternal(t *testing.T) {
+	// this situation should never arise in practice but still good to test for it
+	var cmd struct{}
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &cmd)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	p.subcommand = []string{"should", "never", "happen"}
+	sub := p.Subcommand()
+	assert.Nil(t, sub)
+}

usage.go

@@ -3,23 +3,15 @@ package arg
 import (
 	"fmt"
 	"io"
-	"os"
 	"strings"
 )
 
 // the width of the left column
 const colWidth = 25
 
-// to allow monkey patching in tests
-var (
-	stdout io.Writer = os.Stdout
-	stderr io.Writer = os.Stderr
-	osExit           = os.Exit
-)
-
 // Fail prints usage information to stderr and exits with non-zero status
 func (p *Parser) Fail(msg string) {
-	p.failWithSubcommand(msg, p.cmd)
+	p.FailSubcommand(msg)
 }
 
 // FailSubcommand prints usage information for a specified subcommand to stderr,
@@ -29,28 +21,19 @@ func (p *Parser) Fail(msg string) {
 // a sequence of subcommand names starting with the top-level subcommand and so
 // on down the tree.
 func (p *Parser) FailSubcommand(msg string, subcommand ...string) error {
-	cmd, err := p.lookupCommand(subcommand...)
+	err := p.WriteUsageForSubcommand(p.config.Out, subcommand...)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	p.failWithSubcommand(msg, cmd)
-	return nil
-}
 
-// failWithSubcommand prints usage information for the given subcommand to stderr and exits with non-zero status
+	fmt.Fprintln(p.config.Out, "error:", msg)
-func (p *Parser) failWithSubcommand(msg string, cmd *command) {
+	p.config.Exit(-1)
-	p.writeUsageForSubcommand(stderr, cmd)
+	return nil
-	fmt.Fprintln(stderr, "error:", msg)
-	osExit(-1)
 }
 
 // WriteUsage writes usage information to the given writer
 func (p *Parser) WriteUsage(w io.Writer) {
-	cmd := p.cmd
+	p.WriteUsageForSubcommand(w, p.subcommand...)
-	if p.lastCmd != nil {
-		cmd = p.lastCmd
-	}
-	p.writeUsageForSubcommand(w, cmd)
 }
 
 // WriteUsageForSubcommand writes the usage information for a specified
@@ -63,12 +46,7 @@ func (p *Parser) WriteUsageForSubcommand(w io.Writer, subcommand ...string) erro
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	p.writeUsageForSubcommand(w, cmd)
-	return nil
-}
 
-// writeUsageForSubcommand writes usage information for the given subcommand
-func (p *Parser) writeUsageForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 	var positionals, longOptions, shortOptions []*spec
 	for _, spec := range cmd.specs {
 		switch {
@@ -85,18 +63,10 @@ func (p *Parser) writeUsageForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 		fmt.Fprintln(w, p.version)
 	}
 
-	// make a list of ancestor commands so that we print with full context
-	var ancestors []string
-	ancestor := cmd
-	for ancestor != nil {
-		ancestors = append(ancestors, ancestor.name)
-		ancestor = ancestor.parent
-	}
-
 	// print the beginning of the usage string
-	fmt.Fprint(w, "Usage:")
+	fmt.Fprintf(w, "Usage: %s", p.cmd.name)
-	for i := len(ancestors) - 1; i >= 0; i-- {
+	for _, s := range subcommand {
-		fmt.Fprint(w, " "+ancestors[i])
+		fmt.Fprint(w, " "+s)
 	}
 
 	// write the option component of the usage message
@@ -157,47 +127,66 @@ func (p *Parser) writeUsageForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 	}
 
 	fmt.Fprint(w, "\n")
+	return nil
 }
 
-func printTwoCols(w io.Writer, left, help string, defaultVal string, envVal string) {
+// print prints a line like this:
-	lhs := "  " + left
+//
+//	--option FOO            A description of the option [default: 123]
+//
+// If the text on the left is longer than a certain threshold, the description is moved to the next line:
+//
+//	--verylongoptionoption VERY_LONG_VARIABLE
+//	                        A description of the option [default: 123]
+//
+// If multiple "extras" are provided then they are put inside a single set of square brackets:
+//
+//	--option FOO            A description of the option [default: 123, env: FOO]
+func print(w io.Writer, item, description string, bracketed ...string) {
+	lhs := "  " + item
 	fmt.Fprint(w, lhs)
-	if help != "" {
+	if description != "" {
 		if len(lhs)+2 < colWidth {
 			fmt.Fprint(w, strings.Repeat(" ", colWidth-len(lhs)))
 		} else {
 			fmt.Fprint(w, "\n"+strings.Repeat(" ", colWidth))
 		}
-		fmt.Fprint(w, help)
+		fmt.Fprint(w, description)
 	}
 
-	bracketsContent := []string{}
+	var brack string
-
+	for _, s := range bracketed {
-	if defaultVal != "" {
+		if s != "" {
-		bracketsContent = append(bracketsContent,
+			if brack != "" {
-			fmt.Sprintf("default: %s", defaultVal),
+				brack += ", "
-		)
+			}
+			brack += s
+		}
 	}
 
-	if envVal != "" {
+	if brack != "" {
-		bracketsContent = append(bracketsContent,
+		fmt.Fprintf(w, " [%s]", brack)
-			fmt.Sprintf("env: %s", envVal),
-		)
-	}
-
-	if len(bracketsContent) > 0 {
-		fmt.Fprintf(w, " [%s]", strings.Join(bracketsContent, ", "))
 	}
 	fmt.Fprint(w, "\n")
 }
 
+func withDefault(s string) string {
+	if s == "" {
+		return ""
+	}
+	return "default: " + s
+}
+
+func withEnv(env string) string {
+	if env == "" {
+		return ""
+	}
+	return "env: " + env
+}
+
 // WriteHelp writes the usage string followed by the full help string for each option
 func (p *Parser) WriteHelp(w io.Writer) {
-	cmd := p.cmd
+	p.WriteHelpForSubcommand(w, p.subcommand...)
-	if p.lastCmd != nil {
-		cmd = p.lastCmd
-	}
-	p.writeHelpForSubcommand(w, cmd)
 }
 
 // WriteHelpForSubcommand writes the usage string followed by the full help
@@ -210,13 +199,9 @@ func (p *Parser) WriteHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, subcommand ...string) error
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
-	p.writeHelpForSubcommand(w, cmd)
-	return nil
-}
 
-// writeHelp writes the usage string for the given subcommand
+	var positionals, longOptions, shortOptions, envOnlyOptions []*spec
-func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
+	var hasVersionOption bool
-	var positionals, longOptions, shortOptions []*spec
 	for _, spec := range cmd.specs {
 		switch {
 		case spec.positional:
@@ -225,19 +210,21 @@ func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 			longOptions = append(longOptions, spec)
 		case spec.short != "":
 			shortOptions = append(shortOptions, spec)
+		case spec.short == "" && spec.long == "":
+			envOnlyOptions = append(envOnlyOptions, spec)
 		}
 	}
 
 	if p.description != "" {
 		fmt.Fprintln(w, p.description)
 	}
-	p.writeUsageForSubcommand(w, cmd)
+	p.WriteUsageForSubcommand(w, subcommand...)
 
 	// write the list of positionals
 	if len(positionals) > 0 {
 		fmt.Fprint(w, "\nPositional arguments:\n")
 		for _, spec := range positionals {
-			printTwoCols(w, spec.placeholder, spec.help, "", "")
+			print(w, spec.placeholder, spec.help)
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -249,6 +236,9 @@ func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 		}
 		for _, spec := range longOptions {
 			p.printOption(w, spec)
+			if spec.long == "version" {
+				hasVersionOption = true
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -265,6 +255,9 @@ func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 		fmt.Fprint(w, "\nGlobal options:\n")
 		for _, spec := range globals {
 			p.printOption(w, spec)
+			if spec.long == "version" {
+				hasVersionOption = true
+			}
 		}
 	}
 
@@ -275,7 +268,7 @@ func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 		short:       "h",
 		help:        "display this help and exit",
 	})
-	if p.version != "" {
+	if !hasVersionOption && p.version != "" {
 		p.printOption(w, &spec{
 			cardinality: zero,
 			long:        "version",
@@ -283,13 +276,27 @@ func (p *Parser) writeHelpForSubcommand(w io.Writer, cmd *command) {
 		})
 	}
 
+	// write the list of environment only variables
+	if len(envOnlyOptions) > 0 {
+		fmt.Fprint(w, "\nEnvironment variables:\n")
+		for _, spec := range envOnlyOptions {
+			p.printEnvOnlyVar(w, spec)
+		}
+	}
+
 	// write the list of subcommands
 	if len(cmd.subcommands) > 0 {
 		fmt.Fprint(w, "\nCommands:\n")
 		for _, subcmd := range cmd.subcommands {
-			printTwoCols(w, subcmd.name, subcmd.help, "", "")
+			names := append([]string{subcmd.name}, subcmd.aliases...)
+			print(w, strings.Join(names, ", "), subcmd.help)
 		}
 	}
+
+	if p.epilogue != "" {
+		fmt.Fprintln(w, "\n"+p.epilogue)
+	}
+	return nil
 }
 
 func (p *Parser) printOption(w io.Writer, spec *spec) {
@@ -301,30 +308,23 @@ func (p *Parser) printOption(w io.Writer, spec *spec) {
 		ways = append(ways, synopsis(spec, "-"+spec.short))
 	}
 	if len(ways) > 0 {
-		printTwoCols(w, strings.Join(ways, ", "), spec.help, spec.defaultVal, spec.env)
+		print(w, strings.Join(ways, ", "), spec.help, withDefault(spec.defaultString), withEnv(spec.env))
 	}
 }
 
-// lookupCommand finds a subcommand based on a sequence of subcommand names. The
+func (p *Parser) printEnvOnlyVar(w io.Writer, spec *spec) {
-// first string should be a top-level subcommand, the next should be a child
+	ways := make([]string, 0, 2)
-// subcommand of that subcommand, and so on. If no strings are given then the
+	if spec.required {
-// root command is returned. If no such subcommand exists then an error is
+		ways = append(ways, "Required.")
-// returned.
+	} else {
-func (p *Parser) lookupCommand(path ...string) (*command, error) {
+		ways = append(ways, "Optional.")
-	cmd := p.cmd
-	for _, name := range path {
-		var found *command
-		for _, child := range cmd.subcommands {
-			if child.name == name {
-				found = child
 	}
+
+	if spec.help != "" {
+		ways = append(ways, spec.help)
 	}
-		if found == nil {
+
-			return nil, fmt.Errorf("%q is not a subcommand of %s", name, cmd.name)
+	print(w, spec.env, strings.Join(ways, " "), withDefault(spec.defaultString))
-		}
-		cmd = found
-	}
-	return cmd, nil
 }
 
 func synopsis(spec *spec, form string) string {

usage_test.go

@@ -50,12 +50,16 @@ Options:
   --optimize OPTIMIZE, -O OPTIMIZE
                          optimization level
   --ids IDS              Ids
-  --values VALUES        Values [default: [3.14 42 256]]
+  --values VALUES        Values
   --workers WORKERS, -w WORKERS
                          number of workers to start [default: 10, env: WORKERS]
   --testenv TESTENV, -a TESTENV [env: TEST_ENV]
   --file FILE, -f FILE   File with mandatory extension [default: scratch.txt]
   --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+Environment variables:
+  API_KEY                Required. Only via env-var for security reasons
+  TRACE                  Optional. Record low-level trace
 `
 
 	var args struct {
@@ -70,11 +74,12 @@ Options:
 		Values   []float64    `help:"Values"`
 		Workers  int          `arg:"-w,env:WORKERS" help:"number of workers to start" default:"10"`
 		TestEnv  string       `arg:"-a,env:TEST_ENV"`
+		ApiKey   string       `arg:"required,-,--,env:API_KEY" help:"Only via env-var for security reasons"`
+		Trace    bool         `arg:"-,--,env" help:"Record low-level trace"`
 		File     *NameDotName `arg:"-f" help:"File with mandatory extension"`
 	}
 	args.Name = "Foo Bar"
 	args.Value = 42
-	args.Values = []float64{3.14, 42, 256}
 	args.File = &NameDotName{"scratch", "txt"}
 	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -285,6 +290,37 @@ Options:
 	assert.Equal(t, expectedUsage, strings.TrimSpace(usage.String()))
 }
 
+type epilogued struct{}
+
+// Epilogued returns the epilogue for this program
+func (epilogued) Epilogue() string {
+	return "For more information visit github.com/alexflint/go-arg"
+}
+
+func TestUsageWithEpilogue(t *testing.T) {
+	expectedUsage := "Usage: example"
+
+	expectedHelp := `
+Usage: example
+
+Options:
+  --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+For more information visit github.com/alexflint/go-arg
+`
+	os.Args[0] = "example"
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &epilogued{})
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	var help bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteHelp(&help)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedHelp[1:], help.String())
+
+	var usage bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteUsage(&usage)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedUsage, strings.TrimSpace(usage.String()))
+}
+
 func TestUsageForRequiredPositionals(t *testing.T) {
 	expectedUsage := "Usage: example REQUIRED1 REQUIRED2\n"
 	var args struct {
@@ -414,6 +450,8 @@ Global options:
 
 	_ = p.Parse([]string{"child", "nested", "value"})
 
+	assert.Equal(t, []string{"child", "nested"}, p.SubcommandNames())
+
 	var help bytes.Buffer
 	p.WriteHelp(&help)
 	assert.Equal(t, expectedHelp[1:], help.String())
@@ -435,7 +473,7 @@ func TestNonexistentSubcommand(t *testing.T) {
 	var args struct {
 		sub *struct{} `arg:"subcommand"`
 	}
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{}, &args)
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Exit: func(int) {}}, &args)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	var b bytes.Buffer
@@ -475,7 +513,7 @@ Options:
 		ShortOnly2 string `arg:"-b,--,required" help:"some help2"`
 	}
 	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
-	assert.NoError(t, err)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	var help bytes.Buffer
 	p.WriteHelp(&help)
@@ -522,10 +560,16 @@ Usage: example [-s SHORT]
 Options:
   -s SHORT [env: SHORT]
   --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+Environment variables:
+  ENVONLY                Optional.
+  ENVONLY2               Optional.
+  CUSTOM                 Optional.
 `
 	var args struct {
 		Short            string `arg:"--,-s,env"`
 		EnvOnly          string `arg:"--,env"`
+		EnvOnly2         string `arg:"--,-,env"`
 		EnvOnlyOverriden string `arg:"--,env:CUSTOM"`
 	}
 
@@ -541,19 +585,39 @@ Options:
 	assert.Equal(t, expectedUsage, strings.TrimSpace(usage.String()))
 }
 
+func TestEnvOnlyArgs(t *testing.T) {
+	expectedUsage := "Usage: example [--arg ARG]"
+
+	expectedHelp := `
+Usage: example [--arg ARG]
+
+Options:
+  --arg ARG, -a ARG [env: MY_ARG]
+  --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+Environment variables:
+  AUTH_KEY               Required.
+`
+	var args struct {
+		ArgParam string `arg:"-a,--arg,env:MY_ARG"`
+		AuthKey  string `arg:"required,--,env:AUTH_KEY"`
+	}
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
+	assert.NoError(t, err)
+
+	var help bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteHelp(&help)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedHelp[1:], help.String())
+
+	var usage bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteUsage(&usage)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedUsage, strings.TrimSpace(usage.String()))
+}
+
 func TestFail(t *testing.T) {
-	originalStderr := stderr
+	var stdout bytes.Buffer
-	originalExit := osExit
-	defer func() {
-		stderr = originalStderr
-		osExit = originalExit
-	}()
-
-	var b bytes.Buffer
-	stderr = &b
-
 	var exitCode int
-	osExit = func(code int) { exitCode = code }
+	exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
 
 	expectedStdout := `
 Usage: example [--foo FOO]
@@ -563,27 +627,18 @@ error: something went wrong
 	var args struct {
 		Foo int
 	}
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example", Exit: exit, Out: &stdout}, &args)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 	p.Fail("something went wrong")
 
-	assert.Equal(t, expectedStdout[1:], b.String())
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedStdout[1:], stdout.String())
 	assert.Equal(t, -1, exitCode)
 }
 
 func TestFailSubcommand(t *testing.T) {
-	originalStderr := stderr
+	var stdout bytes.Buffer
-	originalExit := osExit
-	defer func() {
-		stderr = originalStderr
-		osExit = originalExit
-	}()
-
-	var b bytes.Buffer
-	stderr = &b
-
 	var exitCode int
-	osExit = func(code int) { exitCode = code }
+	exit := func(code int) { exitCode = code }
 
 	expectedStdout := `
 Usage: example sub
@@ -593,12 +648,70 @@ error: something went wrong
 	var args struct {
 		Sub *struct{} `arg:"subcommand"`
 	}
-	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example", Exit: exit, Out: &stdout}, &args)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	err = p.FailSubcommand("something went wrong", "sub")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
-	assert.Equal(t, expectedStdout[1:], b.String())
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedStdout[1:], stdout.String())
 	assert.Equal(t, -1, exitCode)
 }
+
+type lengthOf struct {
+	Length int
+}
+
+func (p *lengthOf) UnmarshalText(b []byte) error {
+	p.Length = len(b)
+	return nil
+}
+
+func TestHelpShowsDefaultValueFromOriginalTag(t *testing.T) {
+	// check that the usage text prints the original string from the default tag, not
+	// the serialization of the parsed value
+
+	expectedHelp := `
+Usage: example [--test TEST]
+
+Options:
+  --test TEST [default: some_default_value]
+  --help, -h             display this help and exit
+`
+
+	var args struct {
+		Test *lengthOf `default:"some_default_value"`
+	}
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	var help bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteHelp(&help)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedHelp[1:], help.String())
+}
+
+func TestHelpShowsSubcommandAliases(t *testing.T) {
+	expectedHelp := `
+Usage: example <command> [<args>]
+
+Options:
+  --help, -h             display this help and exit
+
+Commands:
+  remove, rm, r          remove something from somewhere
+  simple                 do something simple
+  halt, stop             stop now
+`
+
+	var args struct {
+		Remove *struct{} `arg:"subcommand:remove|rm|r" help:"remove something from somewhere"`
+		Simple *struct{} `arg:"subcommand" help:"do something simple"`
+		Stop   *struct{} `arg:"subcommand:halt|stop" help:"stop now"`
+	}
+	p, err := NewParser(Config{Program: "example"}, &args)
+	require.NoError(t, err)
+
+	var help bytes.Buffer
+	p.WriteHelp(&help)
+	assert.Equal(t, expectedHelp[1:], help.String())
+}